Process for the production of biodegradeable, functionalised polymer particles, and use thereof as pharmaceutical supports

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to a method for producing biodegradable, functionalised polymer particles, and to the use of the same as medicament carriers.

The present invention relates to a process for the production ofbiodegradable, functionalised polymer particles and to the use thereofas pharmaceutical supports.

PRIOR ART

The effectiveness of many active ingredients depends upon whether theyare transported exactly to the desired target site in the body as theactive ingredients used are frequently able to exert their full actiononly at a specific location and are ineffective at other locations oreven have negative effects there. The latter particularly applies whencombatting cancerous conditions and in particular cancerous conditionsoccurring in the central nervous system (CNS).

One good example of the difficulties which may occur on transport ofactive ingredients in the body is the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Activeingredients destined for the CNS must first cross this barrier. Thisnetwork of blood vessels and cells protects the CNS and preventsnon-water-soluble substances from entering the CNS. Fat-solublesubstances can straightforwardly pass through this barrier by simplediffusion. Active and passive transport systems are, however, necessaryfor the transport of polar substances and ions. However, since, forexample, more than 98% of all newly discovered medicines destined forthe CNS are not water-soluble, they cannot cross the BBB and thus cannotreach their target site.

This example is intended to illustrate the difficulties which may occurduring transport of active ingredients in the animal organism. In thecase of the BBB, for example, it has been attempted to make it morepermeable to active ingredients by modifying the membrane'spermeability. Permeability of the BBB to active ingredients may, forexample, be achieved by artificially increasing osmotic pressure or byadministering bradykinin analogues. Sanovich et al. (Sanovich, E. etal., Brain Res. 1995, Vol. 705(1-2), pp. 125-135) and others have, forexample, demonstrated increased permeability of the BBB to lanthanum bysimultaneous administration with the bradykinin analogue RMP-7. Onefundamental disadvantage of opening the BBB by one of the above-statedmechanisms is that permeability to all substances, which thus alsoincludes toxic substances which can damage the target cells in the CNS,is consequently increased.

Another possibility is to modify the active ingredient chemically insuch a manner that it becomes more lipophilic and may thus also morereadily pass through the BBB, as has for example been demonstrated forchlorambucil derivatives (Greig, N. H. et al., Cancer Chemother.Pharmacol. 1990, Vol. 25(5), pp. 320-325).

An alternative to both the above-stated systems is to use nano- ormicroparticles, the use of which does not entail modifying either thepermeability of the membrane or the active ingredient. Kreuter (Kreuter,J. J. Anat. 1996, Vol. 189(3), pp. 503-505) demonstrates that thepolymer particles used for this purpose are substantially produced bychemical processes, such as emulsion polymerisation, interfacialpolymerisation, desolvation, evaporation and solvent precipitation.

According to DE 197 45 950 A1, polymer particles prepared from the mostvaried substances (polymers (in this case: polybutyl cyanoacrylate),solid or liquid lipids, o/w emulsions, w/o/w emulsions or phospholipidvesicles), to which the pharmaceutical substances are attached, are usedto transport these substances into the CNS.

Another critical factor in the transport of nano- and microparticlesthrough a membrane, and in particular the membranes of the BBB, is thesize of the polymer particles. Previous research results show thatpolymer particles up to a size of 270 nm are capable of getting throughthe BBB (Lockman, P. R. et al., Drug Develop. Indust. Pharmacy 2002,Vol. 28(1), pp. 1-12).

It is thus important for the polymer particles used to be of a specificsize. ?According to Lockman (Lockman, P. R. et al., Drug Develop.Indust. Pharmacy 2002, Vol. 28(1), pp. 1-12), the size of the polymerparticles produced by the above processes is generally determined byphoton correlation spectroscopy. This method, which is based on Brownianmotion, measures the polymer particles with a laser beam, the timedependency of light variation being used to determine particle size.However, this analytical method for the subsequent determination of thesize of the polymer particles produced is very time-consuming andcostly.

The object of the present invention is accordingly to provide a rapidlyusable, low cost transport system for biologically active substanceswhich permits effective and reliable transport of active ingredients inthe animal organism.

For the purposes of the present invention, “biologically activesubstance” is any substance capable of initiating a biological responseon the part of the organism. These substances comprise not only enzymesand abzymes, which catalyse a specific reaction in the organism, andproteins, such as for example antibodies, which bring about an indirectresponse of the organism to the presence of this substance in theorganism, but also inorganic and organic molecules which arenon-biological in origin, i.e. are not formed by a naturally occurringorganism, but are instead produced artificially. Most pharmaceuticalactive ingredients also belong to the latter group. Depending on theirnature, the biologically active substances may also be suitable forbinding further biologically active substances.

A process for the production of biodegradable polymer particles isprovided in order to achieve the above-stated object. This processinvolves introducing at least one inducible gene into a microorganism,wherein the gene codes for a protein which controls the size of thepolymer particles, and culturing the microorganism with induction of theabove-stated, at least one inducible gene in a culture medium underconditions which are suitable for the production of the biodegradablepolymer particles by the microorganism. By means of this process, it ispossible to produce biocompatible, biodegradable polymer particles whichare suitable for transporting biologically active substances andwherein, by controlling the size of the polymer particles formed, saidparticles may be produced as required in the desired size. Due to thecontrolled production of polymer particles of a specific size, the yieldof polymer particles of the desired size is increased, so increasing theefficiency of the process and simultaneously helping to reduce costs.Moreover, polymer particles may be produced by the process according tothe invention which meet the above-stated particle size requirement fortransport through the BBB. Thanks to this process it is above allpossible to produce polymer particles which are smaller than the polymerparticles of this kind naturally produced by microorganisms. The averagesize of the polymer particles naturally produced by microorganisms is300 to 500 nm (Wieczorek, R. et al, 3. Bacteriol. 1997, Vol. 177(9), pp.2425-2435), while the process according to the invention makes itpossible to control production of the polymer particles in such a mannerthat they are considerably smaller than this average value.

The particle size-determining gene is here induced by an upstreaminducible promoter, such as for example a BAD promoter, which is inducedby arabinose. The microorganisms used for this purpose have no gene forcontrolling the size of the polymer particles or this gene isinactivated and replaced by the at least one inducible gene described inthe process according to the invention, which gene codes for a proteinwhich controls the size of the polymer particles. This gene is hereintroduced into the cell by means of a vector which is described ingreater detail in the experimental section of this description. As aconsequence, it is for the first time possible to produce biocompatible,biodegradable polymer particles of a defined size in a microbialprocess.

These polymer particles are deposited as cytoplasmic inclusions in thecell. The core of these polymer particles consists of polyhydroxyalkylcarboxylates, in particular polyhydroxy alkanoates, and is enclosed by ashell membrane consisting of proteins and phospholipids. The shellmembrane consists of lipids and proteins embedded therein. Thepolyhydroxyalkyl carboxylates, which form the core of these polymerparticles, have melting points of 50° C. to 176° C., a crystallinity of30% to 70% and elongation at break values of 5% to 300%.

In order also to be able to use this advantageous process inmicroorganisms which are more suited to biotechnological cultivation(for example certain forms of E. coli, which are classified as GRASorganisms) but, due to their genetic makeup, are unable to form theabove-stated polymer particles, at least one further gene which codesfor a protein involved in the formation of the polymer particles isintroduced as well as the at least one inducible gene which codes for aprotein which controls the size of the polymer particles. Any proteincapable of influencing the metabolism leading to formation of thepolymer particles and thus the composition of the polymer particlesformed may be considered. The at least one further gene which codes fora protein involved in the formation of the polymer particles is hereselected such that it codes for a thiolase, a reductase or a polymersynthase. A polymer synthase is taken to be any protein which is capableof catalysing the final step for formation of a polymer. Apart from thepolymer synthases described in the present invention, formation of apolymer may, for example, also be undertaken by a lipase. The at leastone further gene which codes for a protein involved in the formation ofthe polymer particles is preferably selected such that it codes for phaAthiolase, phaB ketoacyl reductase or phaC synthase from Ralstoniaeutropha. Due to the introduction of these additional genes, the cell isenabled to produce proteins which allow it to form the polymerparticles. Purposeful selection of the at least one further gene whichcodes for a protein involved in the formation of the polymer particlesalso makes it possible to influence the subsequent composition of thepolymer particles. Genes which code for proteins involved in themetabolic pathway towards formation of the polymer particles may havedifferent substrate specificities, form different reaction products orblock branches in the metabolic pathway in order to exert a purposefulinfluence on the substrates and molecules involved in the formation ofthe polymer particles.

In order to allow production of the polymer particles in microorganisms,such as the mutants of the genus E. coli described in Example 4, whichhave a modified fatty acid metabolism, all that is required, apart fromthe at least one inducible gene which codes for a protein which controlsthe size of the polymer particles, is the polymer synthase. Depending onwhich organism is used, further genes may be introduced into the cell inorder to enable production of the polymer particles under the statedconditions. If a cell does not contain all the genes required forformation of the polymer particles, production of the polymer particlesmay nevertheless proceed if the intermediates produced by the missingproteins are supplied to the cell via the nutrient medium. At least onepolymer synthase is, however, always required for formation of thepolymer particles.

The properties of the polymer particles may be influenced by controllingthe composition thereof. By influencing their properties, it is, forexample, possible to influence the rate of biodegradability of thepolymer particles. Apart from the above-stated possibility ofpurposefully selecting the further genes introduced into the cell whichcode for a protein involved in the formation of the polymer particles,it is particularly preferred for the purposes of influencing thecomposition of the polymer particles formed in vivo to introduce intothe cell at least one additional gene which codes for a thiolase and/ora polymer synthase. The differing substrate specificity of the thiolasesand polymer synthases results in different intermediate and finalproducts and thus in a different composition of the formed polymer coreof the particle.

The principle underlying the production of these polymer particles isillustrated by way of example in FIG. 2. Activated precursors forbiosynthesis of the polymers may in principle be derived from thecentral metabolites acetyl CoA or from intermediates of the primarymetabolic pathways the citrate cycle, fatty acid β oxidation and de novofatty acid biosynthesis, and from amino acid metabolism. If fatty acidsare used as the carbon source, intermediates (acyl CoA, in particular3-hydroxyacyl CoA), which serve as activated precursors for PHAbiosynthesis, are produced by fatty acid β oxidation.

Particle size is controlled in that the at least one inducible genewhich codes for a protein which controls the size of the polymerparticles is derived from the family of phasin-like proteins and ispreferably selected from the group comprising the phasin gene phaP fromRalstonia eutropha and the phasin gene phaF from Pseudomonas oleovorans.Phasins are amphiphilic proteins with a molecular weight of 14 to 28 kDawhich bind tightly to the hydrophobic surface of the polymer particles.

Polymer particles with a different composition of the polymers formingthem exhibit different mechanical properties and release biologicallyactive substances, in particular pharmaceutical active ingredients, atdifferent rates. For example, polymer particles composed of C6-C143-hydroxy fatty acids exhibit a higher rate of polymer degradation dueto the low crystallinity of the polymer. An increase in the molar ratioof polymer constituents with relatively large side chains on the polymerbackbone usually reduces crystallinity and results in more pronouncedelastomeric properties. By controlling polymer composition in accordancewith the process described in the invention, it is accordingly possibleto influence the biodegradability of the polymer particles and thus alsothe release rate for biologically active substances, in particularpharmaceutical active ingredients.

At least one fatty acid with functional side groups is preferablyintroduced into the culture medium as a substrate for the formation ofthe polymer particles, with at least one hydroxy fatty acid and/or atleast one mercapto fatty acid and/or at least one β-amino fatty acidparticularly preferably being introduced. “Fatty acids with functionalside groups” should be taken to mean saturated or unsaturated fattyacids. These also include fatty acids containing functional side groupswhich are selected from the group comprising methyl groups, alkylgroups, hydroxyl groups, phenyl groups, sulfhydryl groups, primary,secondary and tertiary amino groups, aldehyde groups, keto groups, ethergroups, carboxyl groups, O-ester groups, thioester groups, carboxylicacid amide groups, hemiacetal groups, acetal groups, phosphate monoestergroups and phosphate diester groups.

Use of the substrates is determined by the desired composition and thedesired properties of the polymer particles, which are influenced bothgenetically by the use of different genes which code for proteins withdifferent substrate specificity and by the additives, substrates andreaction conditions present in the culture medium which are used.

In order to achieve still more accurate control of the size of thepolymer particles formed, the substrate is added to the culture mediumin a quantity such that it is sufficient to ensure control of the sizeof the polymer particles. This yields an additional possibility forexerting still more effective control over particle size.

The microorganism used to form the polymer particles in the processaccording to the invention is selected from the genera comprisingRalstonia, Acaligenes, Pseudomonas and Halobiforma. The microorganismused is preferably selected from the group comprising Ralstoniaeutropha, Alcaligenes latus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas fragi,Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas oleovorans, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Halobiforma haloterrestris. This groupcomprises both microorganisms which are naturally capable of producingbiocompatible, biodegradable polymer particles and microorganisms, suchas for example E. coli, which, due to their genetic makeup, are notcapable of so doing. The genes required to enable the latter-statedmicroorganisms to produce the polymer particles are introduced using theprocess according to the invention. In principle, any culturablemicroorganism may be used for the production of polymer particles bymeans of the above-described process, even if the microorganism cannotproduce the substrates required to form the polymer particles due to adifferent metabolism. In such cases, the necessary substrates are addedto the culture medium and are then converted into polymer particles bythe proteins which have been expressed by the genes which have beenintroduced into the cell.

In order to obtain the polymer particles from the cells, the culturedmicroorganisms are disrupted in per se known manner and the polymerparticles are then separated from the cell debris. The size range of thepolymer particles obtained in this manner may be narrowed still furtherusing standard methods, such as for example exclusion chromatography ordensity gradient centrifugation, to select the polymer particles of thedesired size.

The shell membrane consisting of proteins and lipids of the polymerparticles produced according to the invention may also be modified inorder to impart to the particles properties which are more favourable tothe transport of the active ingredients in the body. To this end, alipid layer located on the surface of the polymer particles is separatedfrom the polymer particles obtained in the process according to theinvention and is replaced by a lipid layer of a different composition.

When replacing the lipid layer by a lipid layer of a differentcomposition, the properties of the new lipid layer which are ofsignificance are those having an influence on the transport of thepolymer particles through a biological membrane. If the lipid layer ofthe shell membrane matches the lipid layer of the target membrane,better particle uptake may be observed (Fernart, L. et al., 3.Pharmacol. Exp. There. 1999, Vol. 291(3), pp. 1017-1022). The lipidlayer of the polymer particles may accordingly be removed and bereplaced by a lipid layer of a different composition. This is preferablyachieved by acetone extraction or phospholipases or non-denaturingdetergents are used. A mixture of the appropriate amphiphilic moleculesis then added to the now virtually lipid-free polymer particles in orderto obtain a lipid layer of the desired composition. The new lipid layerhere preferably consists of a mixture of amphiphilic molecules which areselected from the group comprising phospholipids and ether lipids.

In addition to the lipids, it is also possible to remove the proteinslocated on the surface of the polymer particles, with the exception ofpolymer synthase, by using the above-stated detergents and to replacethem with functionalised proteins. Naked polymer particles may in thismanner be prepared for numerous modification possibilities which aredescribed in greater detail below. Polymer particles obtained from themicroorganism H. haloterrestris are particularly suitable for this typeof modification.

Depending on the subsequent application of the polymer particles,particle size is controlled by the at least one inducible gene in such amanner that the polymer particles formed have a diameter of 10 nm to 3μm, preferably of 1 nm to 900 nm and particularly preferably of 10 nm to100 nm. In one particular embodiment of the present invention, this sizecontrol may also be achieved by controlling the availability of asubstrate in the culture medium or by combining the two mechanisms.

For the purposes of functionalising the polymer particles produced usingthe process according to the invention, it is necessary for the at leastone inducible gene introduced in the process which codes for a proteinwhich controls the size of the polymer particles to comprise a polymerparticle binding domain and at least one binding domain, wherein the atleast one binding domain is capable of binding a biologically activesubstance and/or a coupling reagent. It is likewise particularlypreferred for the at least one further gene which codes for a proteininvolved in the formation of the polymer particles to comprise a polymerparticle binding domain and at least one binding domain, wherein the atleast one binding domain is capable of binding a biologically activesubstance and/or a coupling reagent.

A “binding domain” designates that part of the protein which is obtainedby genetic modification of the at least one inducible gene previouslyintroduced into the cell and/or of the at least one further gene whichcodes for a protein involved in the formation of the polymer particles.The binding domain capable of binding the biologically active substancesand/or a coupling reagent is selected from the group comprisingoligopeptides, enzymes, abzymes and non-catalytic proteins. This groupparticularly preferably comprises FLAG epitopes or at least onecysteine. These groups are also designated functional proteins in theexperimental section. The coding sequence for the members stated in thisgroup is inserted in the coding sequence of the at least one induciblegene previously introduced into the cell and/or of the at least onefurther gene which codes for a protein involved in the formation of thepolymer particles. In this manner, proteins are produced which are notonly involved in the formation of or the control of the formation of thepolymer particles, but, thanks to their binding domain obtained bygenetic modification, are also capable of binding biologically activesubstances and/or coupling reagents. The binding domain may also beobtained after production of the polymer particles by chemicallymodifying the proteins located on the surface with coupling reagents(c.f. Example 8).

A “coupling reagent” for this purpose is an inorganic or organiccompound which is suitable for binding to itself a biologically activesubstance or further coupling reagents on one side and the bindingdomain on the other side.

This structure makes it possible to produce multifunctional polymerparticles which are suitable for transporting biologically activesubstances. The “polymer particle binding domain” preferably consists ofpart of a protein which enables it to bind to the hydrophobic surface ofthe polymer particles. The polymer particle domain which comprises partof a protein bound on the surface of the polymer particle is hereselected from the group of proteins which comprises a polymerdepolymerase, a polymer regulator, a polymer synthase and a particlesize-determining protein. These proteins preferably originate frommicroorganisms which are capable of forming polymer particles, inparticular those from the genera Ralstonia, Alcaligenes and Pseudomonas.The particle size-controlling protein is here preferably derived fromthe family of phasin-like proteins and the phasin from R. eutropha andP. oleovorans is still more preferably used.

A “polymer regulator” for the purposes of the invention is a proteinwhich regulates the transcription of the genes phaA, phaB and phaCinvolved in the formation of the polymer particles. It is withdrawn fromtranscription regulation by binding to the particle surface. One exampleof such a regulator is the phasin repressor (phaR) from R. eutropha,which binds to the promoter of a phasin-like gene, the expressionproduct of which regulates the size of polymer particles formed, andprevents the gene from being read. Because the phasin repressor is boundon the surface of the polymer particles formed, this site on thepromoter is released and transcription of the underlying gene can begin.

The idea of using the binding domain of a polymer synthase for bindingcoupling reagents and/or biologically active substances arises from theelevated stability of the bond between the polymer particle bindingdomain of this protein and the core of the polymer particle. Theinventor has surprisingly discovered that this bond cannot be detachedfrom the core of the biodegradable polymer particle either by denaturingreagents, such as for example. sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), urea,guanidium hydrochloride or dithiothreitol, nor by using acidicconditions. The polymer synthase derived from R. eutropha, P.oleovorans, P. putida or P. aeruginosa is preferably used for thispurpose.

It is here a particular advantage of the process according to theinvention that the genetic engineering modification of the proteinsbinding to the surface of the polymer particles does not affect thefunctionality of the proteins involved in the formation of the polymerparticles. For example, the functionality of the polymer synthase isretained if a protein is fused with the N-terminal end thereof,resulting in the production of a binding domain for binding biologicallyactive substances and/or coupling reagents. Should the functionality ofa protein nevertheless be impaired by the fusion, this shortcoming maybe offset by the presence of a further gene which codes for a proteinwhich performs the same function and is present in an active state.

In this manner, it is possible to ensure a stable bond of thebiologically active substances and/or coupling reagents bound to thepolymer particles via the binding domain of the proteins, in particularpolymer synthase.

During genetic engineering modification of the genes which code forproteins which, once expressed, bind to the particle surface, it is alsopossible to introduce genes with different modifications into the cell.Once these proteins with their different binding domains have beenexpressed and the polymer particles have been formed, it is possible inthis manner to use the different binding domains to multifunctionalisethe particle surface. This process enables straightforward and efficientmass production of functionalised polymer particles.

Coupling reagents are used for the subsequent functionalisation of theproteins bound on the surface of the polymer particles, these couplingreagents preferably being selected from the group comprisingbis(2-oxo-3-oxazolydinyl)phosphonic chloride (BOP—Cl),bromotrispyrrolidinophosphonium hexafluorophosphate (PyBroP),benzotriazol-1-yl-oxy-trispyrrolidinophosphonium hexafluorophosphate(PyBOP), n-hydroxysuccinimide biotin,2-(1H-benzotriazol-1-yl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluronium hexafluorophosphate(HBTU), dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, disuccinimidyl carbonate,1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide (EDC),bis(2-oxo-3-oxazolydinyl)phosphine, diisopropylcarbodiimide (DIPC),2-(1H-benzotrioxazolyl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluronium tetrafluoroborate(TBTU), 2-(5-norbornene-2,3-dicarboxyimido)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluroniumtetrafluoroborate (TNTU), para-nitrophenylchloroformate, andO-(n-succinimidyl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluronium tetrafluoroborate (TSTU).

The biologically active substances used are preferably pesticides,herbicides, pharmaceutically active substances and proteins.

The pharmaceutically active substances are selected from the groupcomprising dideoxyinosine, floxuridine, 6-mercaptopurine, doxorubicin,daunorubicin, 1-darubicin, cisplatin, methotrexate, taxol, antibiotics,anticoagulants, germicides, antiarrhythmic agents and active ingredientprecursors and derivatives of the listed groups of active ingredients.

The proteins are preferably selected from the group comprising insulin,calcitonin, ACTH, glucagon, somatostatin, somatotropin, somatomedin,parathyroid hormone, erythropoietin, hypothalamic release factors,prolactin, thyroid-stimulating hormone, endorphins, enkephalins,vasopressins, non-naturally occurring opiates, superoxide dismutase,antibodies, interferons, asparaginase, arginase, arginine deaminase,adenosine deaminase, ribonuclease, trypsin, chymotrypsin and pepsin.

Another aspect of the invention is a process for the in vitro productionof biodegradable polymer particles, wherein the process comprisesproviding a solution suited to polymer particles formation with at leastone substrate, introducing into the solution a protein which is suitedto controlling the size of the polymer particles and introducing atleast one further protein which is involved in the formation of thepolymer particles. The in vitro process also offers the advantage thatthe size of the polymer particles may be controlled as early as duringproduction of the polymer particles and subsequent costly andtime-consuming size determination and separation of the polymerparticles formed into individual size classes is avoided.

The at least one further protein used here, which is involved in theformation of the polymer particles, is a polymer synthase, wherein thispolymer synthase is preferably selected from the group comprising thepolymer synthase from R. eutropha, P. oleovorans, P. putida and P.aeruginosa.

In contrast with in vivo synthesis, an in vitro synthesis, in whichproteins and enzymes isolated from microorganisms are used in thelaboratory, is normally very costly as both the enzymes and, in somecases, also the enzyme substrates must be isolated and purifiedbeforehand. In one particular embodiment of the present invention forthe in vitro synthesis of the biocompatible, biodegradable polymerparticles, there is added to the solution suited to polymer particleformation at least one fatty acid, particularly preferably a β-mercaptofatty acid and/or a β-amino fatty acid and an acyl CoA oxidase or otheroxidising and activating enzymes for the formation of the polymerparticles. Using these substrates instead of R/S-3-hydroxy fatty acidsand acyl CoA synthetase results in a CoA recycling system, in which theacyl CoA oxidase will activate and oxidise the fatty acid whileconsuming CoA and hydrolysing ATP. During polymerisation, the polymersynthase eliminates CoA, which may then in turn be used by the acyl CoAoxidase. An appreciable reduction in the costs of this in vitro processmay be achieved as a consequence.

Another advantage of the in vitro process for the production of polymerparticles is that the at least one substrate is added to the solutionsuited to polymer particle formation in such a quantity that it issufficient to ensure control of the size of the polymer particles.

Moreover, the size of the polymer particles formed may also additionallybe controlled by adding the polymer synthase to the solution in aquantity which is sufficient to ensure control of the size of thepolymer particles formed. As in the in vivo process, the in vitroprocess also comprises further possibilities for controlling polymerparticle size still more accurately, so increasing the yield of polymerparticles of the desired size and making the process more efficient andcost-effective.

In the in vitro process, however, particle size is actually controlledby introducing a protein which controls the size of the polymerparticles into the solution, which protein is derived from the family ofphasin-like proteins and is preferably selected from the groupcomprising the phasin from Ralstonia eutropha and the phasin fromPseudomonas oleovorans.

By selecting the at least one substrate as well the enzymes used, it isalso possible, as in the in vivo process, to regulate the composition ofthe polymer and so obtain polymer cores with different properties. Whenmore than one substrate is used, it is for example possible, dependingon the type of polymer formed from the enzymes, to obtain polymerparticles with a different composition of the polymer core. As alreadydescribed further above, the polymers produced in this manner impart themost varied properties to the polymer particles.

In the in vitro process for the production of the polymer particles, thecomposition of the lipid layer on the surface of the polymer particle iscontrolled by adding at least one amphiphilic molecule from the group ofphospholipids and ether lipids to the solution (In the absence ofadditional amphiphilic molecules, the particles obtained in vitro aresurrounded only by proteins, which constitutes another type ofparticles.). In this manner, it is possible, for example, to producepolymer particles with a specific surface charge which is specificallyadjusted to the biological membrane which is subsequently to be crossedin the body. The advantage of modifying the lipid layer of the shellmembrane in the in vitro process is that it is possible to dispense withsubsequent modification of the lipid layer, as in the in vivo process.Since the amphiphilic molecules, such as for example phospholipids orether lipids, are already added to the starting solution, a lipid layerof the desired composition is obtained from the outset.

Another aspect of the in vitro process, which is also used in the invivo process, is that at least one pharmaceutically active substance isadded to the solution suited to polymer particle formation. Saidsubstance is incorporated into the polymer particle during polymerparticle synthesis and may subsequently be released into the body bydiffusion through the particle matrix or by degradation of the polymerparticle. The latter-stated variant has the further advantage in thepolymer particles produced by the process according to the inventionthat the rate of biodegradation of the polymer particles may beregulated by the above-described control of the composition of thepolymer core. In this manner, continuous release of the activeingredient over a specific period is possible.

Apart from the incorporation of active ingredients into the growingpolymer particles, functionalisation proceeds, as in the in vivoprocess, by selecting at least one of the proteins introduced into thesolution suited to polymer particle formation in such a manner that theat least one introduced protein comprises a polymer particle bindingdomain and at least one binding domain, wherein the at least one bindingdomain is capable of binding a biologically active substance and/or acoupling reagent. The proteins used in this case for the formation ofthe polymer particles in the in vitro process may be obtained from thein vivo process described further above and they then exhibit, dependingon the type of production described above, the corresponding properties.They are then added to the solution suited to polymer particleformation, where they are involved in the formation of the polymerparticles. As in the in vivo process, the polymer particles produced inthis manner may also additionally be modified after the productionthereof by subsequent modification with the coupling reagents alreadydescribed further above or by addition of biologically active substanceswhich bind to the binding domain of the proteins which have been boundto the surface of the polymer particles.

The invention furthermore comprises a polymer particle of defined size,with a surface layer of amphiphilic molecules, into which [isintroduced] at least one protein which is selected from the groupcomprising a polymer depolymerase, a polymer regulator, a polymersynthase and a particle size-influencing protein, wherein the at leastone protein comprises a polymer particle binding domain and a bindingdomain which is capable of binding a biologically active substanceand/or a coupling reagent and which protein, in a preferred embodiment,is produced according to the above-described process.

Thanks to their advantageous properties, the polymer particles of thepresent invention are particularly suitable for the production of apharmaceutical preparation, a pesticide or a herbicide, wherein thepharmaceutical preparation is preferably suitable for the treatment ofdiseases of the central nervous system. The possibilities formodification of the polymer particles described by the present processallow the conditions to be met for passage through the BBB.

The control of particle size, control of the composition of the shellmembrane and in particular also the functionalisation of particlesurface mean that these biodegradable polymer particles are a suitabletransport vehicle for biologically active substances of all kinds andmoreover enable targeted transport of the polymer particles to theirsite of action. Multifunctionalisation makes it possible, for example,simultaneously to bind not only at least one pharmaceutical activesubstance to the particle surface but also an antibody, the bindingspecificity of which enables precise guidance to the target site. Theseand further advantages are explained in greater detail in the followingexemplary embodiments.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows a schematic overview of an in vivo produced biodegradablepolymer particle and the proteins and lipids which are bound to thesurface.

The abbreviations relate to the following proteins:

A: polymer depolymeraseB: phasin (name of the coding gene in R. eutropha: phaP, in P.oleovorans: phaF)C: polymer synthaseD: phospholipidE: polymer regulators (for example phasin repressor (PhaR from R.eutropha)

FIG. 2 shows an example of synthesis of one of the possiblebiodegradable polymers in R. eutropha. The simple polyhydroxy alkanoatepolyhydroxybutyric acid (PHB) is produced in a three-stage processstarting from the substrate acetyl CoA. The C4 repeat unit in PHB isβ-hydroxybutyric acid. The final step in the synthesis results in theformation of the polymer particle with the polymer synthase bound to thesurface thereof.

FIGS. 3 and 4 show the results from the in vivo experiments. FIG. 3 heredescribes the behaviour of polymer particle diameter with enhancedphasin expression (increased quantity of inducer in the solution), whileFIG. 4 describes the behaviour of the polymer particle count in the cellwith enhanced phasin expression (increased quantity of inducer in thesolution).

FIGS. 5 and 6 show the results of the in vitro experiments. FIG. 5describes the influence of the quantity ratio of phasin to polymersynthase on polymer particle diameter, while FIG. 6 describes theinfluence of the ratio of substrate to polymer synthase on polymerparticle diameter.

FIG. 7 shows the vector pBBad22K (Sukchawalit, R. et al, FEMS MicrobiolLett. 1999, Vol. 181(2), pp. 217-223) which is used as the startingplasmid in the construction of plasmids pBBad-P (which bears the genephaP from R. eutropha) and pBBad-F (which bears the gene phaF from P.oleovorans).

FIG. 8 shows the vector pBBad-P which bears the gene phaP for theexpression of the particle size-determining protein phasin from R.eutropha.

FIG. 9 shows the plasmid pBHR68 (Spiekermann, P. et al., Arch.Microbiol. 1999, Vol. 171, pp. 73-80) which imparts storage of thepolymer (polyhydroxybutyric acid), said plasmid bearing the genesphB_(Re), PhbA_(Re) and phbC_(Re) from Ralstonia eutropha which form thebiosynthesis operon for the expression of phaA thiolase, phaB ketoacylreductase and phaC synthase.

FIG. 10 shows the plasmid pBHR71 (Langenbach, S. et al., FEMS Microbiol.Lett. 1997, Vol. 150, pp. 303-309) which imparts storage of the polymer(polyhydroxy alkanoates), said plasmid bearing the gene phaC1 forexpression of polymer synthase.

FIG. 11 shows the vector pBBad-F which bears the gene phaF forexpression of the particle size-determining phasin-like protein from P.oleovorans.

FIG. 12 shows the vector pBHR71-Cys which has been constructed startingfrom plasmid pBHR71 from FIG. 10. In this structure, the gene phaC1,which codes for polymer synthase, bears two cysteine residues on theN-terminus in order to enable direct binding of biologically activesubstances or the binding of biologically active substances via couplingreagents.

FIG. 13 also shows the vector pBHR71-FLAG, which has likewise beenconstructed starting from plasmid pBHR71 from FIG. 10. In thisstructure, the gene phaC1, which codes for polymer synthase, bears twoFLAG epitopes on the N-terminus. This enables not only in vivoincorporation of gene sequences for functional proteins via the SpeIrestriction site of the FLAG gene sequence but also the attachment ofcoupling reagents and/or biologically active substances in vitro ontothe already expressed polymer synthase. The biologically activesubstances used, which are bound directly or via coupling reagents,impart binding to the target site (for example cell surface) orbiological activity, in particular enzymatic activity.

EXAMPLE 1 Control of the size of the in vivo produced biodegradablepolymer particles EXAMPLE 1.1 Production of Polymer Particles in R.eutropha

The biodegradable polymer particles are produced using a “knock-out”mutant of Ralstonia eutropha (formerly Alcaligenes eutrophus) York etal. (York, G. M. et al. 3. Bacteriol. 2001, Vol. 183, pp. 4217-4226)which exhibits a defect with regard to the gene which codes forexpression of the surface protein phasin on the polymer particles(phaP(−)), as a consequence of which the organism is no longer capableof expressing the phasin which is coded by the phaP gene. Thebiodegradable polymer particles may moreover also be produced usingmicroorganisms which do not contain this gene and the further genesrequired for the biosynthesis of polymer particles. Possible examples ofsuch microorganisms would be Escherichia coli, and Halobiformahaloterrestris. One exemplary embodiment uses Escherichia coli (seeExample 2), which is naturally not capable of producing thebiodegradable polymer particles already described above.

The latter-stated microorganisms are then transformed with a vectorwhich, in the case of R. eutropha, contains the phaP gene which codesfor phasin and contains the promoter sequence. This gene is controlledby an inducible promoter, preferably a BAD promoter which is induced byarabinose.

Cloning Steps

Cloning is performed using the DNA sequence from R. eutropha which codesfor phaP, this sequence being listed in the “GenBank” under numberAF079155 (Hanley, S. Z. et al., FEBS Letters 1999, Vol. 447, pp.99-105). This sequence is inserted in the NcoI/BamHI restriction site ofthe vector pBBad22K (Sukchawalit, R. et al., FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1999,Vol. 181(2), pp. 217-223, c.f. FIG. 7) which contains an induciblepromoter (P_(BAD)). For the purposes of cloning, the corresponding NcoIand BamHI restriction sites are inserted into the sequence which codesfor phasin by PCR mutagenesis by means of the primers5′-aaaggccccatggtcctcaccccggaaca-3′ (SEQ ID No. 1, NcoI restriction sitein bold) and 5′-aaaggccggatcctcagggcactaccttcatcg-3′ (SEQ ID No. 2,BamHI restriction site in bold). The resultant DNA fragment of SEQ IDNo. 3 is hydrolysed with the restriction enzymes NcoI and BamHI andligated into the likewise hydrolysed vector pBBad22K (FIG. 7). Theplasmid, which now contains the nucleotide sequences for the proteinphasin, is hereinafter designated pBBad-P (FIG. 8). This plasmid istransferred into the microorganism by means of the transformationtechniques described in the prior art for the corresponding organism.The inducer of the BAD promoter of pBBad-P is arabinose, which makes itpossible to achieve quantitative control of the expression of this genein the microorganisms used. This control mechanism is used to controlthe expression of the phasin gene and, by means of the quantity ofphasin present in the cell, ultimately to control the size of thepolymer particles.

EXAMPLE 1.2 Production of Microorganisms for the Production of PolymerParticles which were not Originally Capable of Forming Polymer Particles

In microorganisms which were not originally capable of producing polymerparticles of this type, an additional or the same vector containsfurther genes which are involved in the formation of the polymerparticles. The number and type of the necessary genes which must beintroduced into a microbial organism for production of the polymerparticles are determined by the core proteome of the organism used. Inthe simplest case, for example in E. coli, at least one thiolase, areductase and a polymer synthase are necessary in order to producepolymer particles in the manner shown in FIG. 2. If organisms are usedwhich comprise specific mutations, such as for example the E. colistrain from Example 4, fewer than the above-stated genes are sufficientto enable production of the polymer particles. The same applies if theorganism is already supplied with certain precursor substrates from themetabolic pathway for polymer synthesis.

If a further plasmid is used to introduce into the cell the genesnecessary for formation of the polymer particles, the plasmid pBHR68(FIG. 9), which contains the 5.2 kb SmaI/EcoRI fragment from thechromosomal DNA of R. eutropha, is particularly suitable. This plasmidcontains the biosynthesis operon for the production of biodegradablepolymer particles from R. eutropha (Spiekermann, P. et al., Arch.Microbiol. 1999, Vol. 171, pp. 73-80).

EXAMPLE 1.3 Control of Particle Size by Means of the pBBad-P Vector

The microorganisms modified in this manner are incubated at 30° C. inLuria Broth medium. Induction of the promoter with arabinose proceeds inthe late logarithmic growth phase. 24 h after incubation, the size ofthe particles in the cells is determined. To this end, the cells areseparated from the nutrient medium by centrifugation and disrupted.Microscopic determination of polymer particle size is then performed bytunnelling electron microscopy in combination with analytical gelfiltration chromatography. The polymer particle count is determined byinvestigating the intact cells under a light microscope and counting thenumber of the polymer particles per cell.

As is demonstrated by the results, by controlling expression it ispossible to control both the average size of the polymer particlesformed (c.f. FIG. 3) and the average number thereof (c.f. FIG. 4) in theindividual cells. Increasing the copy number of phasin in a controlledmanner brings about a decrease in the average polymer particle diameterwith a simultaneous increase in the average number of polymer particles.In this manner, it is possible bring about a distinct increase in theyield of polymer particles with the desired diameter. This makesproduction of the polymer particles quicker and more cost-effective.

EXAMPLE 1.3 Control of Particle Size by Substrate Availability

Another mechanism for controlling the size of the polymer particles isto regulate the availability of substrates or of the polymer synthasewhich are required for synthesis of the polymer particles. Availabilityof the polymer synthase may be controlled by means of antisense methods,by genetic regulation or by the availability of the substrates which arerequired for formation of the polymer synthase in the nutrient medium.

One example of particle size regulation by the availability of asubstrate in the nutrient medium is an experiment in which theconcentration of the carbon source present is reduced in orderconsequently to control the diameter of the polymer particles formed. Tothis end, an E. coli strain which contains the above-stated plasmidpBHR68 (FIG. 9) with the biosynthesis operon for the production ofbiodegradable polymer particles from R. eutropha (FIG. 8), is grown inM9 medium with 1.5% (w/v) glucose at 30° C. At the beginning of thestationary growth phase, the concentration of the carbon source isreduced to 1/50th of its original value by adding M9 medium withoutglucose and the microorganisms are incubated under otherwise constantgrowth conditions for a further 20 h. On completion of the test, themicroorganisms contain polymer particles with a diameter of on average130 nm.

EXAMPLE 2 Influencing the Composition of the In Vivo Produced PolymerParticles

The composition of the biodegradable polymer particle may be modified byintroducing into the cell, in addition to the gene coding for phaP,further genes which code for enzymes which provide substrates for thesynthase, in particular thiolases or further polymer synthases. As aresult, during formation of the polymer particles, the cell is capableof incorporating a series of different monomers into the growing polymerchain and so produce polymer particles having a core which consists ofdifferently composed polymers.

Examples which may be mentioned in this connection are various polymersynthases which, due to their substrate specificity, incorporate3-hydroxy fatty acids (C4-C16) differently into the growing polymerchain in both the in vivo and the in vitro process. It is, for example,possible to use the polymer synthase from R. eutropha, which producesbiodegradable polymer chains from C4 fatty acids (C4), polymer synthasesfrom Aeromonas punctata (C4 and C6), Thiocapsa pfennigii (C4 and C8) andP. aeruginosa (C6 to C14). Simultaneously introducing two or morepolymer synthases into the cell also makes it possible to producepolymer particles with the most varied properties. In a continuousbatch, new polymer synthases with modified substrate specificity mayalso be obtained by random mutagenesis (in vitro evolution).

The composition of the polymer particles formed may also be influencedin other manners. Providing different carbon sources, precursors ofdifferent carbon sources and intermediates of the metabolic pathwayleading to formation of the polymer particles likewise have an impact onthe nature of the polymer formed. Moreover, the metabolic pathwaysinvolved in the formation of the polymer particles may be controlled byinhibitors, the use of knockout mutants of the metabolic pathway inquestion and the expression of enzymes which result in the metabolicpathway in the formation of other intermediate or final products.

The following enzymes are used to influence fatty acid metabolism, theseenzymes having the property of modifying the intermediates of fatty acidmetabolism and providing different products, for example. fatty acidswith different side chains, for the formation of the polymer particles:(R)-specific enoyl-CoA hydratases, transacylases and ketoacyl-CoA/ACPreductases. These enzymes have a different specificity with regard tothe chain length of the (R)-hydroxyacyl-CoA substrate provided for thepolymer synthase. As a consequence, building blocks with differing sidechain lengths are obtained in the polymer, resulting in polymers ofdifferent compositions.

However, introducing additional enzymes into the cell is not the onlyway of influencing the metabolic pathway-inhibitors of the metabolicpathway may also be added to the medium. Examples of such inhibitors areacrylic acid and triclosan (synonyms: TCC or5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol), to name but a few.

EXAMPLE 3 In Vivo Production of Biodegradable Polymer Particles from(R)-3-Hydroxybutyric Acid with a Highly Crystalline Core

This experiment was performed using an E. coli strain which contains theplasmid pBBad-P and the plasmid pBHR68 already stated in Example 1.Culturing was performed under the conditions stated in Example 1 withglucose as the carbon source. The polymer particles formed consist of(R)-3-hydroxybutyric acid and have a diameter of 50 to 500 nm, dependingon how much inducer (arabinose) is added to the medium. The average sizeof the polymer particles formed in this manner here varies by onlyapprox. 20 to 50 nm. In order to clarify the control characteristicsachieved by the phasin introduced by means of the pBBad-P plasmid, theexperiment is repeated with the above-stated E. coli strain without thepBBad-P plasmid. In this case, polymer particles with a diameter of150-250 nm are obtained. In comparison with the control experiment,controlling particle size by means of the phasin enables the productionof much larger but above all also much smaller polymer particles.

Further fractionation of the polymer particles by size may then proceedby processes known in the prior art, such as for example, exclusionchromatography, density gradient centrifugation, or ultrafiltration in 5mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.5).

EXAMPLE 4 In Vivo Production of Biodegradable Polymer Particles from(R)-3-Hydroxy Fatty Acids with a Core of Low Crystallinity

In this experiment, biodegradable, elastomeric polymer particles havinga core of (R)-3-hydroxy fatty acids are produced in E. coli. The polymerchains are on average made up of 6 to 14 carbon atoms. This is achievedby regulated expression of the phaF gene from P. oleovorans in E. coli,which is very similar to the phasin-coding gene phaP from R. eutrophaand to the gene for polymer synthase from P. aeruginosa (phaC). In thisExample, the expression product of the gene phaF is used to controlparticle size. The polymer particles may be produced in E. coli cellswith modified fatty acid metabolism solely by the polymer synthase(phaC) of the pseudomonads (Langenbach, S. et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett.1997, Vol. 150, pp. 303-309). Fatty acid metabolism is modified in sucha manner that, when fatty acids are used as the carbon source,CoA-activated intermediates (for example enoyl-CoA) of fatty acid βoxidation are accumulated which in turn act as precursors for polymersynthesis. To this end, fadB mutants of E. coli are used (Langenbach, S.et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1997, Vol. 150, pp. 303-309) or inhibitorsare used which correspondingly inhibit fatty acid metabolism (forexample acrylic acid; Qi, Q. et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1998, Vol.167, pp. 89-94). The otherwise required ketoacyl reductase and thethiolase are no longer necessary when using the mutants or inhibitedmicroorganisms. Enoyl-CoA hydratases intrinsic to E. coli then catalysethe formation of R-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA from enoyl-CoA. This is thenconverted by the polymer synthase into poly-(R)-3-hydroxy fatty acid,which forms the polymer core of the polymer particle formed.

Cloning

The phaF gene of P. oleovorans, which has already been described byPrieto et al. (Prieto, M. A. et al., 3. Bacteriol. 1999, Vol. 181(3),pp. 858-868) and is listed in the “GenBank” database under numberAJ010393, is transformed into E. coli using vector pBBad-F (FIG. 11).This vector is obtained on the basis of vector pBBad22K (FIG. 7). Theindividual cloning steps here correspond to those described inExample 1. The phaF gene is cloned into the NcoI/BamHI restriction siteof the vector pBBad22K. The primers used for PCR mutagenesis of theabove-stated phaF gene have the following sequences:5′-aaagggccatggctggcaagaagaattccgagaa-3′ (SEQ ID No. 4, NcoI restrictionsite in bold) and 5′-aaagggggatcctcagatcagggtaccggtgcctgtctg-3′ (SEQ IDNo. 5, BamHI restriction site in bold). The resultant DNA fragment ofSEQ ID No. 6 is then cloned into the above-described plasmid pBBad22K.The plasmid which now contains the sequence for phaF is hereinafterdesignated pBBad-F (FIG. 11). In addition to this plasmid, the plasmidpBHR71 containing the nucleotide sequence for polymer synthase (FIG. 10;Langenbach, S. et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1997, Vol. 150, pp.303-309) is also transformed into E. coli.

The carbon source used for the subsequent expression is the fatty aciddecanoic acid. Expression of the phasin phaF gene is again controlled bymeans of the inducer arabinose. The test is here performed as alreadydescribed in Example 1. Depending on the quantity of inducer previouslyused, the polymer particles formed in this way have a diameter of100-500 nm.

EXAMPLE 4 Control of the Size of the In Vitro Produced BiodegradablePolymer Particles

The size of the biodegradable polymer particles formed is alsocontrolled in in vitro production by the availability of the polymersynthase, of phasin or phasin-like proteins and the availability of thesubstrates and metabolic intermediates.

The necessary enzymes and substrates must first be made available forthe in vitro batch for the production of biodegradable polymerparticles. The recombinant polymer synthase from R. eutropha or P.aeruginosa is used for this test (Gerngross, T. U. and Martin, D. P.,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, Vol. 92, pp. 6279-6283; Qi, Q. et al.,Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2000, Vol. 54, pp. 37-43), which arepurified by affinity chromatography (with His-Tag fusion or Ni²⁺-NTAagarose). The polymer particle size-determining proteins from R.eutropha and P. aeruginosa, for controlling particle size, are purifiedin a similar manner. In order to express this protein in R. eutropha,the same vector is used which has already been used in Example 1 toexpress the phasin gene. The reaction batch for in vitro production ofthe biodegradable polymer particles additionally contains, apart fromthe polymer synthase and the polymer particle size-determining proteinphasin: R-3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA or R-3-hydroxydecanoyl-CoA as substratefor synthesis of the polymer particles, 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.5),1 mM MgCl₂ and 5% glycerol (v/v) for stabilisation. Due to the use ofR-3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA or R-3-hydroxydecanoyl-CoA as precursors for thepolymer synthase, it is not necessary to use the thiolase and thereductase (c.f. FIG. 2).

The results of FIG. 5 show the influence of the quantity ratio of phasinto polymer synthase on polymer particle diameter, while FIG. 6 shows theinfluence of the ratio of substrate to polymer synthase on polymerparticle diameter. These results also show that polymer particle sizeregulation may be regulated by the quantity of polymer synthase present.Effective regulation of particle size may accordingly be achieved bymeans of the process according to the invention.

EXAMPLE 5 Influencing the Composition of the In Vitro Produced PolymerParticles EXAMPLE 5.1 Influencing Polymer Composition

The composition of the biodegradable polymer particle may be modified byadding different substrates to the reaction batch and/or by using ineach case different polymer synthases with a different substratespectrum (c.f. Example 2). In this manner, a series of differentmonomers is incorporated into the growing polymer chain during formationof the polymer particles and polymer particles with a different polymercomposition are produced. Due to the use of the polymer synthase from P.aeruginosa, R-3-hydroxy fatty acid building blocks with 6-14 C atoms areincorporated into the growing polymer chain. If, for example, only onesubstrate is supplied, homopolymeric polymer particles are obtained whenusing the polymer synthase from P. aeruginosa.

Further examples of how the composition of the polymer particles may bemodified are stated in Example 2.

EXAMPLE 5.2 Influencing the Membrane Composition of the PolymerParticles

For the purposes of subsequent fusion with the membrane of a cell, intowhich an active ingredient is to be introduced, for example, it must bepossible to control the composition of the phospholipid layer on thesurface of biodegradable polymer particles. This regulation is achievedin in vitro production (Example 4) of the biodegradable polymerparticles right from the provision of the solution suited to polymerparticle formation. The membrane can be individually tailored to thecorresponding requirements by adding a mixture of different amphiphilicmolecules.

Phospholipids are added to the in vitro reaction batch. A defined numberof molecules of the polymer synthase are now involved in the formationof the polymer particles. As polymerisation proceeds, the polymerparticles according to the invention become larger and the polymersynthases on the surface are no longer able completely to shield thesurface of the polymer particles. As a result, hydrophobic zones (ofpolymer) are exposed, to which amphiphilic molecules spontaneouslyattach themselves.

In the case of in vivo produced particles, the phospholipid layer whichis already present must first be removed. To this end, acetoneextraction is performed or phospholipases or non-denaturing detergentsare used to destroy the phospholipid layer. Then, as already describedabove, a mixture of the appropriate amphiphilic molecules is added tothe now virtually lipid-free polymer particles. Negatively chargedphospholipids or phosphatidyl choline are preferably used here. In oneexemplary embodiment of purposeful control of membrane composition, thepolymer particles are suspended in PBS containing 1% octyl glycoside (pH7.5) and dialysed against an excess of phosphatidyl choline while beingstirred. The resultant particle surface is particularly well suited tofusion with brain capillary endothelial cells (BCEC).

EXAMPLE 5.3 Incorporation of Various Substances into the Growing PolymerParticles

Uptake of substances into the core of the biodegradable polymer particlehas already been qualitatively investigated with the assistance of thelipophilic fluorescent dye Nile Red (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo. USA) orRhodamine 123 (Spiekermann, P. et al., Arch. Microbiol. 1999, Vol. 171,pp. 73-80). If, during in vivo or in vitro production, as describedabove, the fluorescent dye Nile Red is added to the medium or thereaction batch, dyeing of the polymer particles produced can beobserved, i.e. dyeing of the polymer particles begins as early as duringthe synthesis thereof and even before isolation from the cell.

If active ingredients with a pharmaceutical action are added, they maybe incorporated into the polymer core of the particle. For example, thenonpolar antitumour agent paclitaxel is added to the reaction batch inan in vitro experiment for the production of the polymer particles. Thewater-insoluble paclitaxel is dissolved and concentrated in thehydrophobic polymer core of the polymer particles. Paclitaxel is heremerely added to the solution for the formation of the polymer particles,whereupon the active ingredient is concentrated in the particles. Thisis verified once the polymer particles have formed by removing them fromthe reaction batch and investigating the solution for the presence ofpaclitaxel by means of HPLC. The decrease in paclitaxel concentration inthe solution here shows that it has been incorporated into the polymerparticles. As the polymer particles biodegrade in the organism, theactive ingredient is subsequently released. A reaction batch withoutpolymer particles is used as a control, wherein in this case there is nodecrease in the paclitaxel concentration in the solution suited topolymer particle formation.

EXAMPLE 6 Functionalisation of the Particle Surface

Biologically active substances can be bound to proteins which arealready located on the surface of the polymer particles. All theproteins stated in FIG. 1 may be considered. This results in a pluralityof “cross-linking”-strategies, which enable covalent linkage of thebiologically active substance via proteins which are bound to theparticle surface.

EXAMPLE 6.1 Purposeful Modification of a Surface Protein for Attachmentof a Pharmaceutical Active Ingredient

One example of functionalisation of the polymer particles is theattachment of hydrazone-bound doxorubicin (hydrazone-bound doxorubicinhas been described by King, H. D. et al., Biconjugate Chem. 1999, Vol.10, pp. 279-288) to the polymer synthase PhaC1 from P. aeruginosa, whichis bound on the surface of the polymer particles and contains twoN-terminally inserted cysteine residues. These cysteine residues formthe binding domain of the polymer synthase, by means of which thebiologically active substances may be bound.

Cloning

The triplets coding for the cysteine residues are cloned by PCRmutagenesis into the gene coding for PhaC1, which is then cloned intothe XbaI and BamHI restriction site of the plasmid pBHR71 shown in FIG.10. The restriction sites for XbaI and BamHI are also inserted into thegene in this PCR mutagenesis. The primers used for the PCR mutagenesisof the PhaC1-coding gene have the following sequences: primer for theN-terminus 5′-gggctctagaaataaggagatatacatatgtgttgtaagaacaataacgagctt-3′(SEQ ID No. 7, XbaI restriction site in bold, Cys triplet underlined)and primer for the C-terminus 5′-aaacgcggatccttttcatcgttcatgca-3′ (SEQID No. 8, BamHI restriction site in bold). The DNA fragment so obtainedof SEQ ID No. 9 is then hydrolysed with XbaI and BamHI and ligated intothe similarly hydrolysed plasmid pBHR71. The resultant plasmid,designated pBHR71-Cys (FIG. 12), is transformed into E. coli by means ofknown techniques, where it then enables the formation of polymerparticles bearing a polymer synthase on the surface thereof, whichpolymer synthase bears two cysteine residues for the attachment ofvarious substances, in particular pharmaceutical substances.

EXAMPLE 6.1.1 Attachment of Doxorubicin (Syn.: Hydroxyl Daunorubicin)

Hydrazone-mediated “cross-linking” may now proceed via thesesurface-exposed cysteine residues. To this end, the following method isused: 100 mg of the isolated polymer particles (total volume 1 ml) towhich the polymer synthase is bound are incubated for 3 h at 37° C. inhelium-perfused PBS (pH 7.5) and 5 mM dithiothreitol (DTT). Thistreatment reduces the disulfide bridges in the polymer synthase. The lowmolecular weight compounds are then removed by 30 minutes'centrifugation at 4° C. and 40,000×g. The reduced polymer particles arethen suspended with 1 ml of PBS buffer (pH 7.5), which contains 10 μmolof the hydrazone-bound doxorubicin, and incubated for 30 min at 4° C.After this period, centrifugation is again performed under theabove-stated conditions in order to wash the treated polymer particles.Unbound doxorubicin is detected by subsequent HPLC and the successfulattachment to the polymer synthase is verified by the reducedconcentration.

EXAMPLE 6.2 Attachment of Biologically Active Substances, in ParticularPharmaceutical Active Ingredients to the Binding Domain of the PolymerParticles

Active ingredients may also be bound to the polymer particles by beingbound via the binding domain onto the proteins bound to the surface ofthe polymer particles. To this end, a binding domain must first of allbe created. Binding of biologically active substances is achieved bygenetic modification of surface-bound proteins of the polymer particles(such as for example polymer depolymerase, phasin or phasin-likeproteins, polymer synthase, polymer regulator), such that these proteinsform an outwardly directed binding domain by means of which a couplingreagent or a biologically active substance may be bound. On fusion ofthe above-stated surface proteins of the polymer particles with aprotein which enables direct attachment of a coupling reagent or abiologically active substance, it is essential to ensure in this processthat, after fusion with the surface protein of the polymer particle, thefunctionality of both the surface protein and the fused protein is fullyretained.

In one exemplary embodiment, a polymer particle with two FLAG epitopesis fused directly onto the N-terminus of the polymer synthase PhaC1 fromP. aeruginosa. The FLAG epitopes enable the binding of commercialanti-FLAG mAbs (monoclonal antibodies) (Anti-FLAG M2, Sigma-Aldrich) andthen of enzyme markers which are intended to prove the successfulperformance of the process. In this Example, secondary antibody/alkalinephosphatase conjugates (antimouse alkaline phosphatase, Sigma-Aldrich)are used as the enzyme marker. The activity of the alkaline phosphataseon the surface of the polymer particles is then determinedphotometrically.

EXAMPLE 6.2.1 Production of a Polymer Particle with a FLAG-PhaC1 FusionProtein

The following oligonucleotides are used for the production of theFLAG-polymer synthase fusion protein:5′-tatgactagtgattataaagatgatgatgataaaca-3′ and5′-tatgtttatcatcatcatctttataatcactagtca-3′ (SEQ ID No. 10 and SEQ ID No.11, SpeI restriction site in bold, FLAG epitope underlined). In order toobtain double-stranded DNA by hybridisation, the two oligonucleotidesare mixed together in equimolar quantity (each 10 μM) and incubated for30 min at room temperature (RT). The double-stranded DNA formed in thismanner codes for the FLAG epitope (DYKDDDDK) and has overhanging ends(TA) which are complementary to the overhanging ends of the NdeIrestriction site

$( \frac{C\; A{\nabla T}\; A\; T\; G}{G\; T\; A\; T_{?}A\; C} ).$

This DNA fragment is hydrolysed with the restriction enzyme NdeI andcloned into the vector pHBR71 (FIG. 10) which has to this end beensimilarly hydrolysed. The plasmid pBHR71-FLAG (FIG. 13) obtained in thismanner contains the gene with SEQ ID No. 12 and imparts expression of apolymer synthase with N-terminal FLAG fusion (this part of the proteinnow forms the binding domain). Biologically active substances and/orcoupling reagents may now be bound by means of this binding domain. Thesingular SpeI restriction site which is likewise introduced duringcloning is additionally available for the insertion of any desiredfurther DNA fragments which code for functional proteins.

The following method is used as an example of the functionality of theabove-stated construct. Once the pBHR71-FLAG plasmid has beentransformed into E. coli strains which already contain the plasmidpBBad-F and exhibit a modified fatty acid metabolism (c.f. Example 3),the polymer particles are expressed. The polymer particles are isolatedfrom the cells by disrupting the cells and are washed three times withPBS buffer (pH 7.5). The polymer particles are then incubated for 30 minat RT with monoclonal anti-FLAG antibodies which bind to the FLAGepitopes. The polymer particles are then rewashed, as already describedabove, and then incubated with secondary alkaline phosphatase conjugatefor 30 min at RT in PBS buffer. After the 30 minutes' incubation, theseparticles are washed in 0.1 M tris-HCl (pH 8.5) and then 2 mg/ml ofp-nitrophenyl phosphate are added to the particle suspension as asubstrate for the alkaline phosphatase. The activity of the alkalinephosphatase is measured spectrometrically at 410 nm. Polymer particleswhich contain a polymer synthase without a binding domain, i.e. withoutthe FLAG epitope, are used as a negative control. Since the addedp-nitrophenyl phosphate is not converted in the control, the results ofthe spectrometric measurements at 410 nm are negative. The mere factthat the polymer particles have actually formed is proof that theincorporation of the FLAG epitope has had no effect on the functionalityof the polymer synthase.

This process may also be performed with one of the other above-statedsurface proteins of the polymer particles. If two or more surfaceproteins are simultaneously modified, a plurality of the most variedsubstances may be bound to the polymer particles, so permittingmultifunctionality and making them suitable for many differentapplications.

While in the previous example a biologically active substance wassubsequently bound to the already expressed and formed surface proteinof the polymer particle, it is also of course possible to fuse theprotein directly with the surface protein and then express it. To thisend, the coding sequences of the proteins (for example enzymes) arefused with the C-terminal end of the phaC1 gene of the pBHR71-FLAGplasmid.

DNA fragments are obtained by PCR which in each case code for theprotein to be inserted and for the C-terminal fragment of the polymersynthase in order to enable fusion with the phaC1 gene. The twofragments are ligated together by means of a restriction site insertedwith overhanging primers. At the 5′ end of this hybrid gene, at adistance of 7 nt from the start codon, a ribosomal binding site (GAGGAG)and a restriction site are inserted by means of overhanging primers. Ifthe vector used, such as for example the pBHR71-FLAG vector used in thiscase, already has a ribosomal binding site, it is no longer necessaryadditionally to insert a ribosomal binding site. Together with aninserted restriction site at the 3′ end of this hybrid gene, purposefulcloning into the expression vector pBHR71-FLAG is now possible. Therestriction sites at the 5′ and 3′ ends of the hybrid gene must beselected such that they do not occur a second time within the hybridgene, so that cloning into an expression vector can proceed colinearlyto the present promoter. In this Example, the lacZ gene from E. coli isamplified by means of PCR with primers which contain an SpeI restrictionsite: 5′-ggactagtatgaccatgattacggattcactggc-3′ (SEQ ID No. 13, SpeIrestriction site in bold) and5′-ccactagttttttgacaccagaccaactggtaatggtagcg-3′ (SEQ ID No. 14, SpeIrestriction site in bold). In addition, the stop codon is removed fromthe sequence of the lacZ gene by using these primers in order to obtaina continuous reading frame. The resultant DNA fragment with SEQ ID No.15 is cloned directly into the SpeI restriction site of the pHBR71-FLAGplasmid. The fusion protein obtained gave rise to the formation ofpolymer particles with β-galactosidase activity. The correspondingpolymer particles are isolated and β-galactosidase activity isdemonstrated under reducing conditions with the substrateo-nitrophenyl-beta-D-galactopyranoside (Calbiochem).

EXAMPLE 7 Stability of the Bond Between the Surface Proteins and thePolymer Core of the Polymer Particles

Investigations carried out for the purposes of the invention haverevealed that the polymer synthase cannot be detached from the core ofthe biodegradable polymer particle either by treatment with denaturingreagents, such as for example sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), urea,guanidium hydrochloride or dithiothreitol, nor by the use of acidicconditions. This is indicative of the presence of a covalent linkagebetween the polymer particles and the polymer particle binding domain ofthe polymer synthase. The elevated stability of the bond enables stabletransportation of substances bound to or incorporated into the polymerparticles to their target site. The N-terminus fragment of thesurface-bound polymer synthase (N-terminus to the beginning of theconserved α/β-hydrolase domain) is extremely variable and may bereplaced by functional proteins using genetic engineering methods. Inthis manner, polymer synthase activity and synthesis of polymerparticles are retained (Rehm, B. H. A. et al, Biochem. Biophys. Acta2002, Vol. 1594, pp. 178-190). As a consequence, surfacefunctionalisation is obtained which exhibits elevated stability. Amixture of different proteins with different binding domains to whichthe biologically active substances and/or coupling reagents are boundare, if required, applied simultaneously, so giving rise tomultifunctionalisation of the polymer particle surface. These proteinsare applied in vitro by adding the purified proteins with differentbinding domains to the synthesis batch or in vivo by expression of thegenes in the corresponding microorganism which in each case code for aprotein with a binding domain.

EXAMPLE 7.1 Further Possibilities for Modifying the Surface Proteins ofthe Polymer Particles

The C-terminal fragment of the surface protein phasin (PhaP) from R.eutropha (amino acid residues from >Ala141) is hydrophilic and may bereplaced by functional proteins without preventing anchoring of thephasin via the polymer particle binding domain to the surface of thepolymer particles.

This anchoring is based on hydrophobic interactions and is reversible(Hanley, S. Z. et al, FEBS Letters 1999, Vol. 447, pp. 99-105). ThisC-terminal fragment of the intracellular polymer depolymerases is fusedby genetic engineering processes with functional proteins and so enablesfunctionalisation of the surface of the polymer particle by means ofsubsequent attachment of biologically active substances and/or couplingreagents.

The C-terminus (amino acid residue from >180) of the intracellularpolymer depolymerase of R. eutropha binds the enzyme to the core of thepolymer particles (Saegusa, H. et al., 3. Bacteriol. 2001, Vol. 183(1),pp. 94-100). This C-terminal fragment of the intracellular polymerdepolymerases is fused by genetic engineering processes with functionalproteins and so enables functionalisation of the surface of the polymerparticle.

The N-terminus (amino acid residue from <140) of the expressionproducts, bound to the surface of the polymer particles, of the genesphal and phaF from Pseudomonas oleovorans bind the proteins to thepolyester core of the polymer particles (Prieto, M. A. et al., J.Bacteriol. 1999, Vol. 181(3), pp. 858-868). This N-terminal fragment ofthe expression products of the genes phaF and phal is fused by geneticengineering processes with a functional protein and the resultantbinding domain then enables functionalisation of the surface of thepolymer particle by attachment of biologically active substances and/orcoupling reagents.

EXAMPLE 8 Covalent Modification of the Surface Proteins of the PolymerParticles with a Coupling Reagent

The proteins shown in FIG. 1 on the surface of the biodegradable polymerparticles may be treated with specific labelling substances which bindspecifically to certain amino acids (for example N-hydroxysuccinimidebiotin to lysine). This enables the attachment of biologically activesubstances, such as for example of biotin by iodoacetamide-mediatedlinkage to cysteine. Molecules, such as biotin, then effect a furtherlinkage of biologically active substances onto the surface proteins ofthese polymer particles. These include, for example, avidin orstreptavidin which may themselves be bound to enzymes and so permitprogressive functionalisation of the surface proteins of thebiodegradable polymer particles (Rehm, B. H. A. et al., J. Bacteriol.1994, Vol. 176, pp. 5639-5647). This functionalisation may proceed byattachment of antibodies or pharmaceutical active ingredients. Moleculeswith different surface charges may also be attached in order to impartto the polymer particles a specific surface charge which is advantageousfor transport through/fusion with certain membranes.

Labelling of lysine residues on the surface proteins of the polymerparticles with biotin is achieved by means of n-hydroxysuccinimidebiotin. In this experiment, polymer particles which bear the polymersynthase PhaC1 from P. aeruginosa are isolated from recombinant E. coliwhich bears the plasmid pHBR71. After isolation, the polymer particlesare washed three times in PBS (pH 8.0) washed and n-hydroxysuccinimidebiotin (Sigma-Aldrich) is then added to the solution up to a finalconcentration of 5 mM. The reaction is terminated by washing again after5 minutes' incubation at 4° C. Detection of the biotin bound to theparticle surface is performed with the assistance of thestreptavidin-alkaline phosphatase conjugate (Sigma-Aldrich) ando-nitrophenyl phosphate (Calbiochem) as substrate. In the control batchwith particles which have not been treated with n-hydroxysuccinimidebiotin, the particles do not exhibit alkaline phosphatase activity.

In addition to the examples listed here, there are many other couplingreagents for linking biologically active substances with the assistanceof which the surface proteins of the polymer particles produced here maybe activated.

1-29. (canceled)
 30. A process for producing polymer particles, theprocess comprising: A) providing a cell comprising at least one nucleicacid that codes for a fusion protein, the fusion protein comprising (a)a polymer synthase, and (b) at least one protein selected from anoligopeptide, antibody, non-catalytic protein or enzyme, fused with thepolymer synthase; B) cultivating the cell in a culture medium so thatthe cell produces the fusion protein from the at least one nucleic acidand produces polymer particles; and C) separating the polymer particlesfrom the cultivated cell to produce a composition comprising polymerparticles.
 31. A process according to claim 30, wherein the polymersynthase is from Ralstonia, Alcaligenes, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas orThiocapsa.
 32. A process according to claim 30, wherein the culturemedium comprises at least one hydroxy fatty acid.
 33. A processaccording to claim 30, wherein the cell is selected from Escherichia,Ralstonia, Alcaligenes, Pseudomonas, Halobiforma Aeromonas, andThiocapsa.
 34. A process according to claim 30, wherein the cell isselected from Ralstonia eutropha, Alcaligenes latus, Escherichia coli,Pseudomonas fragi, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas oleovorans,Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Halobiformahaloterrestris, Aeromonas punctata or Thiocapsa pfennigii.
 35. A processaccording to claim 30, wherein the polymer particles have a diameter of10 nm to 3 μm.
 36. A process according to claim 30, wherein the polymerparticles have a diameter of 10 nm to 900 nm.
 37. A process according toclaim 30, wherein the polymer particles have a diameter of 10 nm to 100nm.
 38. A process according to claim 30, wherein at least one dye isadded to the culture medium and incorporated into the particles.
 39. Aprocess according to claim 30, further comprising D) chemicallymodifying the polymer synthase by contacting the polymer synthase with acoupling reagent.
 40. A process according to claim 39, wherein thecoupling reagent is selected from the group consisting ofbis(2-oxo-3-oxazolydinyl)phosphonic chloride (BOP—Cl),bromotrispyrrolidinophosphonium hexafluorophosphate (PyBroP),benzotriazol-1-yl-oxy-trispyrrolidinophosphonium hexafluorophosphate(PyBOP), n-hydroxysuccinimide biotin,2-(1H-benzotriazol-1-yl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluronium hexafluorophosphate(HBTU), dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, disuccinimidyl carbonate,1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide (EDC),bis(2-oxo-3-oxazolydinyl)phosphine, diisopropylcarbodiimide (DIPC),2-(1H-benzotrioxazolyl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluronium tetrafluoroborate(TBTU), 2-(5-norbornene-2,3-dicarboxyimido)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluroniumtetrafluoroborate (TNTU), para-nitrophenylchloroformate, andO-(n-succinimidyl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluronium tetrafluoroborate (TSTU).41. A process according to claim 30, further comprising D) binding abiologically active substance to the fusion protein, wherein thebiologically active substance is selected from i) dideoxyinosine,floxuridine, 6-mercaptopurine, doxorubicin, daunorubicin, 1-darubicin,cisplatin, methotrexate, taxol, antibiotics, anticoagulants, germicides,antiarrhythmic agents and active ingredient precursors or derivativesthereof, or ii) insulin, calcitonin, ACTH, glucagons, somatostatin,somatotropin, somatomedin, parathyroid hormone, erythropoietin,hypothalamic release factors, prolactin, thyroid-stimulating hormone,endophins, enkephalins, vasopressins, non-naturally occurring opiates,superoxide dismutase, antibodies, interferons, asparaginase, arginase,arginine deaminase, adenosine deaminase, ribonuclease, trypsin,chymotrypsin or pepsin, or iii) an oligopeptide, antibody, non-catalyticprotein or enzyme.
 42. A process according to claim 30, wherein theprotein is selected from insulin, calcitonin, ACTH, glucagons,somatostatin, somatotropin, somatomedin, parathyroid hormone,erythropoietin, hypothalamic release factors, prolactin,thyroid-stimulating hormone, endophins, enkephalins, vasopressins,non-naturally occurring opiates, superoxide dismutase, antibodies,interferons, asparaginase, arginase, arginine deaminase, adenosinedeaminase, ribonuclease, trypsin, chymotrypsin or pepsin.
 43. A processaccording to claim 30, wherein the protein is an antibody.
 44. A processaccording to claim 30, wherein the cell comprises two or more differentnucleic acids that code for different fusion proteins.
 45. A processaccording to claim 30, wherein the cell comprises three or moredifferent nucleic acids that code for different fusion proteins.
 46. Aprocess according to claim 30, further comprising removing asurface-bound protein from the polymer particles.
 47. A processaccording to claim 30, wherein the composition consists essentially ofpolymer particles having surface-bound proteins.
 48. A method of bindinga target protein comprising A) providing a composition of polymerparticles produced by a method according to claim 30, wherein optionallya coupling reagent is bound to the fusion protein, and B) contacting thecomposition with a sample comprising a target protein selected from anoligopeptide, antibody, non-catalytic protein or enzyme so that theprotein or the coupling reagent binds the target protein.
 49. A processaccording to claim 30, wherein the cell further comprises one or morenucleic acids that code for one or more additional fusion proteins, theone or more additional fusion proteins comprising (a) a polymer particlebinding domain, or (b) a protein involved in the formation of thepolymer particles, the protein comprising a polymer particle bindingdomain, the additional fusion protein further comprising i) at least oneprotein selected from an oligopeptide, antibody, non-catalytic proteinor enzyme, or ii) at least one binding domain capable of binding one ormore proteins or one or more coupling reagents, wherein the protein isselected from an oligopeptide, antibody, non-catalytic protein orenzyme, or iii) at least one protein and at least one binding domaincapable of binding one or more biologically active substances or one ormore coupling reagents, wherein the protein is selected from anoligopeptide, antibody, non-catalytic protein or enzyme, or iv) acombination thereof.
 50. A process according to claim 30, wherein theprotein involved in the formation of polymer particles is selected froma nucleic acid coding for a polymer depolymerase, a polymer regulator, apolymer synthase, and a particle size-determining protein, or acombination thereof.
 51. A process according to claim 30, wherein thepolymer synthase is from Ralstonia eutropha, Pseudomonas oleovorans,Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aeromonas punctata orThiocapsa pfennigii.